We’re building life from scratch: 27 biological processes recreated in laboratories

Home Biology We’re building life from scratch: 27 biological processes recreated in laboratories

Biology

By Chu E. - June 23, 2025

The pursuit of recreating life’s fundamental processes is transforming both biology and biotechnology. Across the globe, scientists are successfully reconstructing complex biological systems in meticulously controlled laboratory settings. These achievements offer remarkable insights into the origins of life, the mechanisms that drive living organisms, and the immense potential for designing custom-built life forms. In this article, we explore 27 pivotal biological processes that have been synthetically replicated, illuminating the ingenuity, promise, and profound implications of these groundbreaking breakthroughs.

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1. DNA Replication

We’re building life from scratch: 27 biological processes recreated in laboratories — A close-up view of a test tube containing vibrant strands of DNA, illustrating the intricate process of replication. | Photo by National Cancer Institute on Pexels

Scientists have successfully recreated DNA replication in the lab by combining purified enzymes with synthetic DNA strands. This breakthrough allows researchers to closely examine how genetic fidelity is maintained and has led to powerful technologies, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). For instance, a study in Nature describes the step-by-step reconstitution of bacterial DNA replication machinery in vitro, providing invaluable insights for molecular biology and genetic engineering.

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2. Transcription

Transcription—the process of converting DNA into RNA—has been faithfully recreated outside living cells using isolated RNA polymerases and synthetic DNA templates. This in vitro transcription is crucial for exploring gene expression and for building synthetic genetic circuits from the ground up. Research published in Science highlights the successful assembly of minimal laboratory systems that mimic the precision of natural gene regulation, paving the way for sophisticated genetic engineering.

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3. Translation (Protein Synthesis)

The translation of RNA into proteins has been reconstructed in laboratories using sophisticated cell-free systems. By assembling ribosomes, transfer RNAs, and amino acids outside of living cells, scientists are able to synthesize custom proteins on demand. This powerful approach drives innovation in synthetic biology and pharmaceutical manufacturing. Advances in reconstituted translation systems, as detailed in Cell, are opening new possibilities for protein engineering and the creation of novel biomolecules.

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4. Cellular Metabolism

Researchers have reconstructed key metabolic pathways—such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle—using purified enzymes in controlled environments. These assembled systems offer a unique window into how cells produce and manage energy. By understanding and manipulating these pathways, scientists are laying the groundwork for artificial cells capable of sustaining their own metabolic functions. A milestone study in Nature demonstrates how such synthetic metabolic networks can advance both fundamental biology and metabolic engineering.

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5. Cell Division

Synthetic biology has made it possible to replicate essential cell division mechanisms in laboratory settings. Researchers have recreated processes such as contractile ring formation and chromosome segregation using purified components in vitro. These achievements provide crucial insights into the mechanics of cellular reproduction and are foundational for the construction of artificial cells. Recent breakthroughs, as reported in Nature Communications, are accelerating our understanding of how life self-replicates at its most fundamental level.

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6. Membrane Formation

Scientists have engineered lipid bilayers and vesicles that closely resemble natural cell membranes, opening new avenues for research into membrane dynamics and molecular transport. These artificial membranes serve as essential platforms for studying how substances move in and out of cells, and they play a pivotal role in drug delivery technologies and the development of protocell models. Research published in Nature highlights the potential of synthetic membranes to revolutionize both basic biology and biomedicine.

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7. Signal Transduction

Researchers have recreated cellular signal transduction pathways in the lab, assembling systems with kinases and receptors to mimic cellular communication. These synthetic pathways unravel how cells detect and respond to external signals, providing foundational knowledge for biomedical science. Such reconstructions are vital for the development of innovative biosensors and diagnostic tools. Breakthroughs in this area, as described in Nature Chemical Biology, are reshaping our understanding of cell-environment interactions.

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8. Photosynthesis

Scientists have managed to replicate key steps of photosynthesis in laboratory settings by assembling photosystems and electron transport chains from purified components. These synthetic constructs not only deepen our understanding of how plants convert sunlight into energy but also fuel the development of artificial photosynthesis technologies. Such innovations hold promise for sustainable energy solutions, as detailed in Science, by harnessing nature’s light-driven processes for clean fuel production.

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9. Oxidative Phosphorylation

Researchers have reconstructed oxidative phosphorylation—the process by which cells generate ATP—inside artificial vesicles in the lab. By mimicking the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis, these synthetic systems provide a powerful tool for studying cellular energy production. This approach has also advanced our understanding of mitochondrial diseases and bioenergetics. As highlighted in Nature, such breakthroughs are crucial for both fundamental biology and the development of energy-efficient biotechnologies.

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10. Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)

Scientists have successfully reconstituted critical steps of apoptosis in vitro using purified proteins. These synthetic reconstructions allow researchers to dissect the intricate pathways controlling programmed cell death, a process vital for healthy development and immune defense. Insights from these systems are especially important for understanding how apoptosis malfunctions in diseases such as cancer. Foundational work published in Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology illuminates how cell fate can be synthetically controlled and studied.

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11. Protein Folding

Through in vitro experiments, researchers have unraveled the delicate process of protein folding and the essential role of molecular chaperones. By recreating these mechanisms outside living cells, scientists gain significant insight into how proteins achieve their functional shapes—and what goes wrong in cases of misfolding. This knowledge is crucial for addressing diseases like Alzheimer’s, which are linked to protein misfolding. Pioneering studies in Nature continue to illuminate the complexities of protein structure and stability.

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12. Immune Response Activation

Scientists have built synthetic systems to replicate immune signaling cascades, allowing for precise study of how the immune system senses and reacts to pathogens. These laboratory models make it possible to dissect host-pathogen interactions at a molecular level, providing valuable insights into immunity and autoimmune diseases. This research is also accelerating vaccine development by revealing new targets and response mechanisms. Groundbreaking progress in this field is documented in Science.

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13. Gene Editing with CRISPR

The revolutionary CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system has been reconstructed in cell-free environments, enabling researchers to make highly targeted DNA modifications without the complexity of living cells. This synthetic approach offers unparalleled control for both basic research and therapeutic development, accelerating advances in genetic medicine. The precision and flexibility of in vitro CRISPR systems are described in detail in Nature, setting the stage for safer and more efficient genome editing technologies.

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14. Circadian Rhythms

Scientists have managed to reconstruct biological clocks in vitro using only a handful of purified proteins. These synthetic circadian systems allow researchers to dissect the molecular underpinnings of daily biological cycles, providing new perspectives on sleep disorders and chronobiology. Understanding these rhythms at a fundamental level sheds light on how living organisms synchronize with their environments. Landmark experiments detailed in Science have brought us closer to manipulating biological time for health and medicine.

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15. Cell Motility

Laboratory experiments have synthetically recreated cell motility mechanisms, such as actin-based movement, providing a detailed view of how cells migrate. By assembling the key proteins responsible for movement, researchers can study cellular dynamics in development, wound healing, and disease progression. These reconstructed systems are invaluable for dissecting the molecular choreography of cell migration. Seminal work published in Nature continues to advance our grasp of how cells traverse complex environments.

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16. Hormone Signaling

Scientists have successfully recreated hormone-receptor interactions and mapped out the resulting signaling cascades in laboratory settings. These synthetic models allow researchers to precisely study how hormones control physiological processes and how signaling can go awry in endocrine disorders. Such insights are invaluable for drug development targeting diabetes, thyroid dysfunction, and other hormonal diseases. Findings reported in Nature showcase the power of reconstructing hormone signaling for both basic research and therapeutic innovation.

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17. Cell Differentiation

By building in vitro models of stem cell differentiation, researchers can unravel how unspecialized cells transform into specialized types like neurons, muscle cells, or blood cells. These synthetic systems are revolutionizing our understanding of both developmental biology and regenerative medicine. The ability to direct cell fate in the lab holds enormous promise for tissue engineering and therapies for degenerative diseases. Groundbreaking studies in Nature highlight how controlled differentiation is being harnessed for medical innovation.

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18. Viral Replication

Scientists have developed lab-based systems that can mimic the entire viral life cycle, from entry and genome replication to assembly and release. These synthetic models provide a controlled environment for studying viral mechanisms and are indispensable for antiviral drug screening and vaccine development. Such platforms accelerate the discovery of treatments and preventative strategies for emerging viral threats. Detailed advances in this area are described in Cell, underscoring the power of in vitro viral replication.

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19. Meiosis

Scientists have recreated key stages of meiosis in laboratory settings, allowing direct observation of how gametes—sperm and eggs—are formed. These synthetic models illuminate the intricacies of genetic recombination and chromosome segregation, which are essential for fertility and genetic diversity. Such breakthroughs help clarify the roots of reproductive disorders and hereditary diseases. Significant findings published in Nature are advancing both fundamental biology and the development of fertility treatments.

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20. Quorum Sensing

Scientists have synthetically recreated bacterial quorum sensing, the process by which microbes communicate and coordinate their behavior through chemical signals. These laboratory systems enable researchers to explore how microbial populations make collective decisions, such as forming biofilms or launching attacks on hosts. Understanding quorum sensing is critical for designing synthetic microbial consortia and developing novel antimicrobial tactics. Recent advances, highlighted in Nature Communications, are revolutionizing our approach to microbiology and infectious disease control.

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21. Protein Degradation

The vital process of protein degradation—specifically the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway—has been reconstituted in vitro, giving researchers a clear view of how cells maintain protein quality and turnover. This synthetic system allows precise study of how defective or unneeded proteins are tagged and dismantled, ensuring cellular quality control. Insights from these reconstructions are crucial for understanding diseases caused by protein accumulation. Seminal research published in Nature continues to expand our knowledge of cellular housekeeping.

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22. Chemotaxis

Scientists have recreated bacterial chemotaxis in laboratory systems, revealing how cells sense and move toward or away from specific chemical cues. These synthetic reconstructions provide key insights into how microbes navigate their environments, a process central to infection, immune responses, and microbial ecology. Such understanding is instrumental for developing targeted therapies and controlling harmful bacteria. Detailed findings published in Science are shaping the future of cell behavior research.

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23. Development of Synthetic Minimal Cells

Researchers have engineered synthetic minimal cells by assembling only the essential genes and cellular components required for basic life processes. These streamlined cells demonstrate the minimum requirements for life, offering powerful models for origin-of-life studies and synthetic biology. Building minimal cells in the lab enables scientists to dissect the core machinery underlying cellular autonomy. Key breakthroughs in this field are detailed in Science, marking a milestone in our quest to understand life from its foundation.

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24. Epigenetic Modification

Scientists have developed techniques to add or remove epigenetic marks—such as DNA methylation and histone modification—on synthetic DNA in vitro. These advances allow researchers to precisely study how gene regulation, inheritance patterns, and disease susceptibility are controlled beyond the genetic code itself. Synthetic manipulation of epigenetic states is helping to unravel the complexities of cellular memory and heritable traits. Landmark findings published in Nature are driving forward our understanding of gene expression and disease mechanisms.

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25. Autophagy

Scientists have reconstructed key steps of autophagy in laboratory systems, shedding light on the process by which cells recycle damaged components and maintain internal balance. These synthetic models allow researchers to explore the molecular machinery of cellular self-renewal and its crucial role in survival under stress. Insights from in vitro autophagy are vital for understanding neurodegenerative diseases and developing therapies that promote healthy aging. Groundbreaking progress is detailed in Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology.

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26. RNA Splicing

Researchers have assembled the spliceosome—the complex responsible for processing messenger RNA—from purified components in the laboratory. This achievement allows for detailed study of how RNA transcripts are edited before becoming functional proteins. Understanding RNA splicing at this level is crucial for revealing the origins of many genetic diseases caused by splicing errors. Important advances in this area are highlighted in Nature, opening doors to new therapeutic strategies.

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27. Horizontal Gene Transfer

Researchers have successfully simulated horizontal gene transfer in vitro, recreating the process by which genetic material is exchanged between different organisms. This synthetic approach uncovers the mechanisms that drive evolution, microbial adaptation, and the spread of antibiotic resistance. By studying gene transfer outside living systems, scientists gain unprecedented insight into genetic innovation across diverse life forms. Breakthroughs reported in Nature are reshaping our understanding of evolution and biotechnology.

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Conclusion

From DNA replication to the engineering of synthetic minimal cells, the laboratory recreation of biological processes is reshaping how we understand and harness life itself. These breakthroughs illuminate the origins, complexity, and interconnectedness of living systems—while opening doors to next-generation medicine, biotechnology, and sustainable solutions. As we continue to build life from scratch, the line between discovery and invention blurs. The future of biology is unfolding in the lab—and everyone stands to benefit from its promise.

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